Of Vedic Maths

Consisting of 16 basic aphorisms or Sutras, Vedic Mathematics is a system of Maths which prevailed in ancient India. Composed by Bharati Krishna Thirtha, these 16 sutras help one to do faster maths.

The first aphorism is this

"Whatever the extent of its deficiency, lessen it still further to that very extent; and also set up the square (of that deficiency)"

When computing the square of 9, as the nearest power of 10 is 9, let us take 10 as our base. As 9 is 1 less than 10, we can decrease it by the deficiency = 9-1 =8. This is the leftmost digit
On the right hand put deficiency^2, which is 1^2.

Hence the square of nine is 81.

For numbers above 10, instead of looking at the deficit we look at the surplus.



For example:


11^2 = (11+1)*10+1^2 = 121

12^2 = (12+2)*10+2^2 = 144

14^2 = ( 14+4)*10+4^2 = 196

25^2 = ((25+5)*2)*10+5^2 = 625

35^2= ((35+5)*3)*10+5^2 = 1225

Mathematics and Philosophy

In India, mathematics is related to Philosophy. We can find mathematical
concepts like Zero ( Shoonyavada ), One ( Advaitavada ) and Infinity
(Poornavada ) in Philosophia Indica.

The Sine Tables of Aryabhata and Madhava, which gives correct sine values or values of
24 R Sines, at intervals of 3 degrees 45 minutes and the trignometric tables of
Brahmagupta, which gives correct sine and tan values for every 5 degrees influenced
Christopher Clavius, who headed the Gregorian Calender Reforms of 1582. These
correct trignometric tables solved the problem of the three Ls, ( Longitude, Latitude and
Loxodromes ) for the Europeans, who were looking for solutions to their navigational
problem ! It is said that Matteo Ricci was sent to India for this purpose and the
Europeans triumphed with Indian knowledge !

The Western mathematicians have indeed lauded Indian Maths & Astronomy. Here are
some quotations from maths geniuses about the long forgotten Indian Maths !

In his famous dissertation titled "Remarks on the astronomy of Indians" in 1790,
the famous Scottish mathematician, John Playfair said

"The Constructions and these tables imply a great knowledge of
geometry,arithmetic and even of the theoretical part of astronomy.But what,
without doubt is to be accounted,the greatest refinement in this system, is
the hypothesis employed in calculating the equation of the centre for the
Sun,Moon and the planets that of a circular orbit having a double
eccentricity or having its centre in the middle between the earth and the
point about which the angular motion is uniform.If to this we add the great
extent of the geometrical knowledge required to combine this and the other
principles of their astronomy together and to deduce from them the just
conclusion;the possession of a calculus equivalent to trigonometry and
lastly their approximation to the quadrature of the circle, we shall be
astonished at the magnitude of that body of science which must have
enlightened the inhabitants of India in some remote age and which whatever
it may have communicated to the Western nations appears to have received
another from them...."

Albert Einstein commented "We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count,
without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made."

The great Laplace, who wrote the glorious Mechanique Celeste, remarked

"The ingenious method of expressing every possible number
using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute
value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its
significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its
simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic
foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more
readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest
men of antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius."

Of Indian Maths

In India, mathematics is related to Philosophy. We can find mathematical
concepts like Zero ( Shoonyavada ), One ( Advaitavada ) and Infinity
(Poornavada ) in Philosophia Indica.

The Sine Tables of Aryabhata and Madhava, which gives correct sine values or values of
24 R Sines, at intervals of 3 degrees 45 minutes and the trignometric tables of
Brahmagupta, which gives correct sine and tan values for every 5 degrees influenced
Christopher Clavius, who headed the Gregorian Calender Reforms of 1582. These
correct trignometric tables solved the problem of the three Ls, ( Longitude, Latitude and
Loxodromes ) for the Europeans, who were looking for solutions to their navigational
problem ! It is said that Matteo Ricci was sent to India for this purpose and the
Europeans triumphed with Indian knowledge !

The Western mathematicians have indeed lauded Indian Maths & Astronomy. Here are
some quotations from maths geniuses about the long forgotten Indian Maths !

In his famous dissertation titled "Remarks on the astronomy of Indians" in 1790,
the famous Scottish mathematician, John Playfair said

"The Constructions and these tables imply a great knowledge of
geometry,arithmetic and even of the theoretical part of astronomy.But what,
without doubt is to be accounted,the greatest refinement in this system, is
the hypothesis employed in calculating the equation of the centre for the
Sun,Moon and the planets that of a circular orbit having a double
eccentricity or having its centre in the middle between the earth and the
point about which the angular motion is uniform.If to this we add the great
extent of the geometrical knowledge required to combine this and the other
principles of their astronomy together and to deduce from them the just
conclusion;the possession of a calculus equivalent to trigonometry and
lastly their approximation to the quadrature of the circle, we shall be
astonished at the magnitude of that body of science which must have
enlightened the inhabitants of India in some remote age and which whatever
it may have communicated to the Western nations appears to have received
another from them...."

Albert Einstein commented "We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count,
without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made."

The great Laplace, who wrote the glorious Mechanique Celeste, remarked

"The ingenious method of expressing every possible number
using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute
value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its
significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its
simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic
foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more
readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest
men of antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius."

The Infinite Pi series of Madhava

By means of the same argument, the circumference can be computed in another way too. That is as (follows): The first result should by the square root of the square of the diameter multiplied by twelve. From then on, the result should be divided by three (in) each successive (case). When these are divided in order by the odd numbers, beginning with 1, and when one has subtracted the (even) results from the sum of the odd, (that) should be the circumference. ( Yukti deepika commentary )


This quoted text specifies another formula for the computation of the circumference c of a circle having diameter d. This is as follows.


c = SQRT(12 d^2 - SQRT(12 d^2/3.3 + sqrt(12 d^2)/3^2.5 - sqrt(12d^2)/3^3.7 +.......


As c = Pi d , this equation can be rewritten as


Pi = Sqrt(12( 1 - 1/3.3 + 1/3^2.5 -1/3^3.7 +......


This is obtained by substituting z = Pi/ 6 in the power series expansion for arctan (z).


Pi/4 = 1 - 1/3 +1/5 -1/7+.....


This is Madhava's formula for Pi, and this was discovered in the West by Gregory and Liebniz.

Madhava's Pi series

By means of the same argument, the circumference can be computed in another way too. That is as (follows): The first result should by the square root of the square of the diameter multiplied by twelve. From then on, the result should be divided by three (in) each successive (case). When these are divided in order by the odd numbers, beginning with 1, and when one has subtracted the (even) results from the sum of the odd, (that) should be the circumference. ( Yukti deepika commentary )


This quoted text specifies another formula for the computation of the circumference c of a circle having diameter d. This is as follows.


c = SQRT(12 d^2 - SQRT(12 d^2/3.3 + sqrt(12 d^2)/3^2.5 - sqrt(12d^2)/3^3.7 +.......


As c = Pi d , this equation can be rewritten as


Pi = Sqrt(12( 1 - 1/3.3 + 1/3^2.5 -1/3^3.7 +......


This is obtained by substituting z = Pi/ 6 in the power series expansion for arctan (z).


Pi/4 = 1 - 1/3 +1/5 -1/7+.....


This is Madhava's formula for Pi, and this was discovered in the West by Gregory and Liebniz.

Madhava's Pi series

By means of the same argument, the circumference can be computed in another way too. That is as (follows): The first result should by the square root of the square of the diameter multiplied by twelve. From then on, the result should be divided by three (in) each successive (case). When these are divided in order by the odd numbers, beginning with 1, and when one has subtracted the (even) results from the sum of the odd, (that) should be the circumference. ( Yukti deepika commentary )


This quoted text specifies another formula for the computation of the circumference c of a circle having diameter d. This is as follows.


c = SQRT(12 d^2 - SQRT(12 d^2/3.3 + sqrt(12 d^2)/3^2.5 - sqrt(12d^2)/3^3.7 +.......


As c = Pi d , this equation can be rewritten as


Pi = Sqrt(12( 1 - 1/3.3 + 1/3^2.5 -1/3^3.7 +......


This is obtained by substituting z = Pi/ 6 in the power series expansion for arctan (z).


Pi/4 = 1 - 1/3 +1/5 -1/7+.....


This is Madhava's formula for Pi, and this was discovered in the West by Gregory and Liebniz.

Arctangent series of Madhava, Gregory and Liebniz

The inverse tangent series of Madhava is given in verse 2.206 – 2.209 in Yukti-dipika commentary (Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya) by Sankara Variar . It is also given by Jyeshtadeva in Yuktibhasha and a translation of the verses is given below.


Now, by just the same argument, the determination of the arc of a desired sine can be (made). That is as follows: The first result is the product of the desired sine and the radius divided by the cosine of the arc. When one has made the square of the sine the multiplier and the square of the cosine the divisor, now a group of results is to be determined from the (previous) results beginning from the first. When these are divided in order by the odd numbers 1, 3, and so forth, and when one has subtracted the sum of the even(-numbered) results from the sum of the odd (ones), that should be the arc. Here the smaller of the sine and cosine is required to be considered as the desired (sine). Otherwise, there would be no termination of results even if repeatedly (computed).

Rendering in modern notations

Let s be the arc of the desired sine, bhujajya, y. Let r be the radius and x be the cosine (kotijya).

The first result is y.r/x
From the divisor and multiplier y^2/x^2
From the group of results y.r/x.y^2/x^2, y.r/x. y^2/x^2.y^2/x^2
Divide in order by number 1,3 etc
1 y.r/1x, 1y.r/3x y^2/x^2, 1y.r/5x.y^2/x^2.Y^2/x^2

a = (Sum of odd numbered results) 1 y.r/1x + 1y.r/5x.y^2/x^2.y^2/x^2+......

b= ( Sum of even numbered results) 1y.r/3x.y^2/x^2 + 1 y.r/7x.y^2/x^2.y^2/x^.y^2/x^2+.....

The arc is now given by
s = a - b

Transformation to current notation

If x is the angle subtended by the arc s at the Center of the Circle, then s = rx and kotijya = r cos x and bhujajya = r sin x. And sparshajya = tan x

Simplifying we get

x = tan x - tan^3x/'3 + tan^5x/5 - tan^7x/7 + .....

Let tan x = z, we have

arctan ( z ) = z - z^3/3 + z^5/5 - z^7/7

We thank www.wikipedia.org for publishing this on their site.

Arctangent series of Madhava, Gregory and Liebniz

The inverse tangent series of Madhava is given in verse 2.206 – 2.209 in Yukti-dipika commentary (Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya) by Sankara Variar . It is also given by Jyeshtadeva in Yuktibhasha and a translation of the verses is given below.


Now, by just the same argument, the determination of the arc of a desired sine can be (made). That is as follows: The first result is the product of the desired sine and the radius divided by the cosine of the arc. When one has made the square of the sine the multiplier and the square of the cosine the divisor, now a group of results is to be determined from the (previous) results beginning from the first. When these are divided in order by the odd numbers 1, 3, and so forth, and when one has subtracted the sum of the even(-numbered) results from the sum of the odd (ones), that should be the arc. Here the smaller of the sine and cosine is required to be considered as the desired (sine). Otherwise, there would be no termination of results even if repeatedly (computed).

Rendering in modern notations

Let s be the arc of the desired sine, bhujajya, y. Let r be the radius and x be the cosine (kotijya).

The first result is y.r/x
From the divisor and multiplier y^2/x^2
From the group of results y.r/x.y^2/x^2, y.r/x. y^2/x^2.y^2/x^2
Divide in order by number 1,3 etc
1 y.r/1x, 1y.r/3x y^2/x^2, 1y.r/5x.y^2/x^2.Y^2/x^2

a = (Sum of odd numbered results) 1 y.r/1x + 1y.r/5x.y^2/x^2.y^2/x^2+......

b= ( Sum of even numbered results) 1y.r/3x.y^2/x^2 + 1 y.r/7x.y^2/x^2.y^2/x^.y^2/x^2+.....

The arc is now given by
s = a - b

Transformation to current notation

If x is the angle subtended by the arc s at the Center of the Circle, then s = rx and kotijya = r cos x and bhujajya = r sin x. And sparshajya = tan x

Simplifying we get

x = tan x - tan^3x/'3 + tan^5x/5 - tan^7x/7 + .....

Let tan x = z, we have

arctan ( z ) = z - z^3/3 + z^5/5 - z^7/7

We thank www.wikipedia.org for publishing this on their site.

The Madhava cosine series

Madhava's cosine series is stated in verses 2.442 and 2.443 in Yukti-dipika commentary (Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya) by Sankara Variar. A translation of the verses follows.



Multiply the square of the arc by the unit (i.e. the radius) and take the result of repeating that (any number of times). Divide (each of the above numerators) by the square of the successive even numbers decreased by that number and multiplied by the square of the radius. But the first term is (now)(the one which is) divided by twice the radius. Place the successive results so obtained one below the other and subtract each from the one above. These together give the śara as collected together in the verse beginning with stena, stri, etc.



Let r denote the radius of the circle and s the arc-length.

The following numerators are formed first:

s.s^2,
s.s^2.s^2
s.s^2.s^2.s^2

These are then divided by quantities specified in the verse.

1)s.s^2/(2^2-2)r^2,
2)s. s^2/(2^2-2)r^2. s^2/4^2-4)r^2
3)s.s^2/(2^2-2)r^2.s^2/(4^2-4)r^2. s^2/(6^2-6)r^2


As per verse,

sara or versine = r.(1-2-3)

Let x be the angle subtended by the arc s at the center of the Circle. Then s = rx and sara or versine = r(1-cosx)

Simplifying we get the current notation

1-cosx = x^2/2! -x^4/4!+ x^6/6!......

which gives the infinite power series of the cosine function.

The Madhava Trignometric Series

The Madhava Trignometric series is one one of a series in a collection of infinite series expressions discovered by Madhava of Sangramagrama ( 1350-1425 ACE ), the founder of the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics. These are the infinite series expansions of the Sine, Cosine and the ArcTangent functions and Pi. The power series expansions of sine and cosine functions are called the Madhava sine series and the Madhava cosine series.

The power series expansion of the arctangent function is called the Madhava- Gregory series.

The power series are collectively called as Madhava Taylor series. The formula for Pi is called the Madhava Newton series.

One of his disciples, Sankara Variar had translated his verse in his Yuktideepika commentary on Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya, in verses 2.440 and 2.441


Multiply the arc by the square of the arc, and take the result of repeating that (any number of times). Divide (each of the above numerators) by the squares of the successive even numbers increased by that number and multiplied by the square of the radius. Place the arc and the successive results so obtained one below the other, and subtract each from the one above. These together give the jiva, as collected together in the verse beginning with "vidvan" etc.


Rendering in modern notations

Let r denote the radius of the circle and s the arc-length.

The following numerators are formed first:

s.s^2,
s.s^2.s^2
s.s^2.s^2.s^2

These are then divided by quantities specified in the verse.

1)s.s^2/(2^2+2)r^2,
2)s. s^2/(2^2+2)r^2. s^2/4^2+4)r^2
3)s.s^2/(2^2+2)r^2.s^2/(4^2+4)r^2. s^2/(6^2+6)r^2

Place the arc and the successive results so obtained one below the other, and subtract each from the one above to get jiva:


Jiva = s-(1-2-3)

When we transform it to the current notation

If x is the angle subtended by the arc s at the center of the Circle, then s = rx and jiva = r sin x.


Sin x = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7!...., which is the infinite power series of the sine function.


By courtesy www.wikipedia.org and we thank Wikipedia for publishing this on their site.

The Madhava Trignometric Series

The Madhava Trignometric series is one one of a series in a collection of infinite series expressions discovered by Madhava of Sangramagrama ( 1350-1425 ACE ), the founder of the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics. These are the infinite series expansions of the Sine, Cosine and the ArcTangent functions and Pi. The power series expansions of sine and cosine functions are called the Madhava sine series and the Madhava cosine series.

The power series expansion of the arctangent function is called the Madhava- Gregory series.

The power series are collectively called as Madhava Taylor series. The formula for Pi is called the Madhava Newton series.

One of his disciples, Sankara Variar had translated his verse in his Yuktideepika commentary on Tantrasamgraha-vyakhya, in verses 2.440 and 2.441


Multiply the arc by the square of the arc, and take the result of repeating that (any number of times). Divide (each of the above numerators) by the squares of the successive even numbers increased by that number and multiplied by the square of the radius. Place the arc and the successive results so obtained one below the other, and subtract each from the one above. These together give the jiva, as collected together in the verse beginning with "vidvan" etc.


Rendering in modern notations

Let r denote the radius of the circle and s the arc-length.

The following numerators are formed first:

s.s^2,
s.s^2.s^2
s.s^2.s^2.s^2

These are then divided by quantities specified in the verse.

1)s.s^2/(2^2+2)r^2,
2)s. s^2/(2^2+2)r^2. s^2/4^2+4)r^2
3)s.s^2/(2^2+2)r^2.s^2/(4^2+4)r^2. s^2/(6^2+6)r^2

Place the arc and the successive results so obtained one below the other, and subtract each from the one above to get jiva:


Jiva = s-(1-2-3)

When we transform it to the current notation

If x is the angle subtended by the arc s at the center of the Circle, then s = rx and jiva = r sin x.


Sin x = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7!...., which is the infinite power series of the sine function.


By courtesy www.wikipedia.org and we thank Wikipedia for publishing this on their site.

Adverse Jupiter does it for India !

We had warned against the adverse transits of Jupiter, adverse for both Dhoni and India.

While Jove in the 10th indicates " loss of position and wandering about" for India, for Dhoni Jove transits the hostile 8th, indicating fall !

India whitewashed and humiliated, we can now understand. Sachin losing his 100th century also.

Just shows how powerful the Nine Revolving Heavens are and how the physique and the psyche of the natives are affected.

Now India will have to resurrect herself from the ruins!

Good luck, India. Well done, England !

Of Natural Strength, Naisargika Bala

Natural Strength, Naisargika Bala, is the inherent property of a celestial object, which possesses the following properties


1) This force is constant for a celestial object, not varying in time.

2) This force is proportional to the size of the diameter of the planets.

3) This force is inversely proportional to the distance, r, from the Sun.

4) It increases in the order from the farthest planet to the nearest planet to the Sun. From Saturn,Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury, Moon and Sun.

5) This Force is a major factor when planets are involved in Planetary War ( Graha Yuddha ), when their longitudes are more or less identical in the Ecliptic.

Let F1 and F2 be the Naisargika Bala of planets 1 and 2 situated in the same distance, r, from earth. Then we have

F1 = F(D1)/r
F2 = F(D2)/r

The ratio of the planetary Naisargika Bala is

F1/F2 = F(D1)/F(D2)

The forces are given by ( according to Newtonian modern theories)

F1= ( M1M/r^2)
F2= ( M2M/r^2)

The ratio of the gravitational forces are

F1/F2 = M1/M2


M1 = v1 d1
M2 = v2 d2 ( v volume d density )


If d1 = d2

then

F1/F2 = V1/V2 = F(D1)/F(D2)


Therefore the ratio of the Naisargika Balas of two planets at the same identical position in the Zodiac, as defined by the Indian astronomers, is almost identical to the ratios of the modern gravitational forces of these planets if their mass densities are identical.

India becomes a laughing stock !

It is to the credit of Gooch that England owes its batting renaissance. Gooch gave tips to the English batsmen and you can see the result.

Gooch scored 333 against India in one Test and he knows the methodology to counter Indian swing and spin. Mentally and physically he prepared the English batsmen to score massive scores.

England did score heavily in Australia, where they trounced the Kangaroos in Tests. Now it is their turn to defeat India.

India is now a laughing stock, despite Dravid's 35th ton, an unconquered 146 not out. India most probably will lose this Test and it is time to do some rethinking !

Calculus, India's gift to Europe

The Jesuits took the trignometric tables and planetary models from the Kerala School of Astronomy and Maths and exported it to Europe starting around 1560 in connection with the European navigational problem, says Dr Raju.

Dr C K Raju was a professor Mathematics and played a leading role in the C-DAC team which built Param: India’s first parallel supercomputer. His ten year research included archival work in Kerala and Rome and was published in a book called " The Cultural Foundations of Mathematics". He has been a Fellow of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study and is a Professor of Computer Applications.

“When the Europeans received the Indian calculus, they couldn’t understand it properly because the Indian philosophy of mathematics is different from the Western philosophy of mathematics. It took them about 300 years to fully comprehend its working. The calculus was used by Newton to develop his laws of physics,” opines Dr Raju.



The Infinitesimal Calculus: How and Why it Was Imported into Europe

By Dr C.K. Raju

It is well known that the “Taylor-series” expansion, that is at the heart of calculus, existed in India in widely distributed mathematics / astronomy / timekeeping (“jyotisa”) texts which preceded Newton and Leibniz by centuries.

Why were these texts imported into Europe? These texts, and the accompanying precise sine values computed using the series expansions, were useful for the science that was at that time most critical to Europe: navigation. The ‘jyotisa’ texts were specifically needed by Europeans for the problem of determining the three “ells”: latitude, loxodrome, and longitude.

How were these Indian texts imported into Europe? Jesuit records show that they sought out these texts as inputs to the Gregorian calendar reform. This reform was needed to solve the ‘latitude problem’ of European navigation. The Jesuits were equipped with the knowledge of local languages as well as mathematics and astronomy that were required to understand these Indian texts.

The Jesuits also needed these texts to understand the local customs and how the dates of traditional festivals were fixed by Indians using the local calendar (“panchânga”). How the mathematics given in these Indian ancient texts subsequently diffused into Europe (e.g. through clearing houses like Mersenne and the works of Cavalieri, Fermat, Pascal, Wallis, Gregory, etc.) is yet another story.

The calculus has played a key role in the development of the sciences, starting from the “Newtonian Revolution”. According to the “standard” story, the calculus was invented independently by Leibniz and Newton. This story of indigenous development, ab initio, is now beginning to totter, like the story of the “Copernican Revolution”.

The English-speaking world has known for over one and a half centuries that “Taylor series” expansions for sine, cosine and arctangent functions were found in Indian mathematics / astronomy / timekeeping (‘jyotisa’) texts, and specifically in the works of Madhava, Neelkantha, Jyeshtadeva, etc. No one else, however, has so far studied the connection of these Indian developments to European mathematics.

The connection is provided by the requirements of the European navigational problem, the foremost problem of the time in Europe. Columbus and Vasco da Gama used dead reckoning and were ignorant of celestial navigation. Navigation, however, was both strategically and economically the key to the prosperity of Europe of that time.

Accordingly, various European governments acknowledged their ignorance of navigation while announcing huge rewards to anyone who developed an appropriate technique of navigation. These rewards spread over time from the appointment of Nunes as Professor of Mathematics in 1529, to the Spanish government’s prize of 1567 through its revised prize of 1598, the Dutch prize of 1636, Mazarin’s prize to Morin of 1645, the French offer (through Colbert) of 1666, and the British prize legislated in 1711.

Many key scientists of the time (Huygens, Galileo, etc.) were involved in these efforts. The navigational problem was the specific objective of the French Royal Academy, and a key concern for starting the British Royal Society.

Prior to the clock technology of the 18th century, attempts to solve the European navigational problem in the 16th and 17th centuries focused on mathematics and astronomy. These were (correctly) believed to hold the key to celestial navigation. It was widely (and correctly) held by navigational theorists and mathematicians (e.g. by Stevin and Mersenne) that this knowledge was to be found in the ancient mathematical, astronomical and time-keeping (jyotisa) texts of the East.

Though the longitude problem has recently been highlighted, this was preceded by the latitude problem and the problem of loxodromes. The solution of the latitude problem required a reformed calendar. The European calendar was off by ten days. This led to large inaccuracies (more than 3 degrees) in calculating latitude from the measurement of solar altitude at noon using, for example, the method described in the Laghu Bhâskarîya of Bhaskara I.

However, reforming the European calendar required a change in the dates of the equinoxes and hence a change in the date of Easter. This was authorised by the Council of Trent in 1545. This period saw the rise of the Jesuits. Clavius studied in Coimbra under the mathematician, astronomer and navigational theorist Pedro Nunes. Clavius subsequently reformed the Jesuit mathematical syllabus at the Collegio Romano. He also headed the committee which authored the Gregorian Calendar Reform of 1582 and remained in correspondence with his teacher Nunes during this period.

Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci who trained in mathematics and astronomy under Clavius’ new syllabus were sent to India. In a 1581 letter, Ricci explicitly acknowledged that he was trying to understand the local methods of time-keeping (‘jyotisa’) from the Brahmins and Moors in the vicinity of Cochin.

Cochin was then the key centre for mathematics and astronomy since the Vijaynagar Empire had sheltered it from the continuous onslaughts of Islamic raiders from the north. Language was not a problem for the Jesuits since they had established a substantial presence in India. They had a college in Cochin and had even established printing presses in local languages like Malayalam and Tamil by the 1570’s.

In addition to the latitude problem (that was settled by the Gregorian Calendar Reform), there remained the question of loxodromes. These were the focus of efforts of navigational theorists like Nunes and Mercator.

The problem of calculating loxodromes is exactly the problem of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Loxodromes were calculated using sine tables. Nunes, Stevin, Clavius, etc. were greatly concerned with accurate sine values for this purpose, and each of them published lengthy sine tables. Madhava’s sine tables, using the series expansion of the sine function, were then the most accurate way to calculate sine values.

Madhava's sine series

sin x = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7!+......


The Europeans encountered difficulties in using these precise sine values for determining longitude, as in the Indo-Arabic navigational techniques or in the Laghu Bhâskarîya. This is because this technique of longitude determination also required an accurate estimate of the size of the earth. Columbus had underestimated the size of the earth to facilitate funding for his project of sailing to the West. His incorrect estimate was corrected in Europe only towards the end of the 17th century CE.

Even so, the Indo-Arabic navigational technique required calculations while the Europeans lacked the ability to calculate. This is because algorismus texts had only recently triumphed over abacus texts and the European tradition of mathematics was “spiritual” and “formal” rather than practical, as Clavius had acknowledged in the 16th century and as Swift (of ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ fame) had satirized in the 17th century. This led to the development of the chronometer, an appliance that could be mechanically used without any application of the mind.

Calculus, India's gift to Europe

The Jesuits took the trignometric tables and planetary models from the Kerala School of Astronomy and Maths and exported it to Europe starting around 1560 in connection with the European navigational problem, says Dr Raju.

Dr C K Raju was a professor Mathematics and played a leading role in the C-DAC team which built Param: India’s first parallel supercomputer. His ten year research included archival work in Kerala and Rome and was published in a book called " The Cultural Foundations of Mathematics". He has been a Fellow of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study and is a Professor of Computer Applications.

“When the Europeans received the Indian calculus, they couldn’t understand it properly because the Indian philosophy of mathematics is different from the Western philosophy of mathematics. It took them about 300 years to fully comprehend its working. The calculus was used by Newton to develop his laws of physics,” opines Dr Raju.



The Infinitesimal Calculus: How and Why it Was Imported into Europe

By Dr C.K. Raju

It is well known that the “Taylor-series” expansion, that is at the heart of calculus, existed in India in widely distributed mathematics / astronomy / timekeeping (“jyotisa”) texts which preceded Newton and Leibniz by centuries.

Why were these texts imported into Europe? These texts, and the accompanying precise sine values computed using the series expansions, were useful for the science that was at that time most critical to Europe: navigation. The ‘jyotisa’ texts were specifically needed by Europeans for the problem of determining the three “ells”: latitude, loxodrome, and longitude.

How were these Indian texts imported into Europe? Jesuit records show that they sought out these texts as inputs to the Gregorian calendar reform. This reform was needed to solve the ‘latitude problem’ of European navigation. The Jesuits were equipped with the knowledge of local languages as well as mathematics and astronomy that were required to understand these Indian texts.

The Jesuits also needed these texts to understand the local customs and how the dates of traditional festivals were fixed by Indians using the local calendar (“panchânga”). How the mathematics given in these Indian ancient texts subsequently diffused into Europe (e.g. through clearing houses like Mersenne and the works of Cavalieri, Fermat, Pascal, Wallis, Gregory, etc.) is yet another story.

The calculus has played a key role in the development of the sciences, starting from the “Newtonian Revolution”. According to the “standard” story, the calculus was invented independently by Leibniz and Newton. This story of indigenous development, ab initio, is now beginning to totter, like the story of the “Copernican Revolution”.

The English-speaking world has known for over one and a half centuries that “Taylor series” expansions for sine, cosine and arctangent functions were found in Indian mathematics / astronomy / timekeeping (‘jyotisa’) texts, and specifically in the works of Madhava, Neelkantha, Jyeshtadeva, etc. No one else, however, has so far studied the connection of these Indian developments to European mathematics.

The connection is provided by the requirements of the European navigational problem, the foremost problem of the time in Europe. Columbus and Vasco da Gama used dead reckoning and were ignorant of celestial navigation. Navigation, however, was both strategically and economically the key to the prosperity of Europe of that time.

Accordingly, various European governments acknowledged their ignorance of navigation while announcing huge rewards to anyone who developed an appropriate technique of navigation. These rewards spread over time from the appointment of Nunes as Professor of Mathematics in 1529, to the Spanish government’s prize of 1567 through its revised prize of 1598, the Dutch prize of 1636, Mazarin’s prize to Morin of 1645, the French offer (through Colbert) of 1666, and the British prize legislated in 1711.

Many key scientists of the time (Huygens, Galileo, etc.) were involved in these efforts. The navigational problem was the specific objective of the French Royal Academy, and a key concern for starting the British Royal Society.

Prior to the clock technology of the 18th century, attempts to solve the European navigational problem in the 16th and 17th centuries focused on mathematics and astronomy. These were (correctly) believed to hold the key to celestial navigation. It was widely (and correctly) held by navigational theorists and mathematicians (e.g. by Stevin and Mersenne) that this knowledge was to be found in the ancient mathematical, astronomical and time-keeping (jyotisa) texts of the East.

Though the longitude problem has recently been highlighted, this was preceded by the latitude problem and the problem of loxodromes. The solution of the latitude problem required a reformed calendar. The European calendar was off by ten days. This led to large inaccuracies (more than 3 degrees) in calculating latitude from the measurement of solar altitude at noon using, for example, the method described in the Laghu Bhâskarîya of Bhaskara I.

However, reforming the European calendar required a change in the dates of the equinoxes and hence a change in the date of Easter. This was authorised by the Council of Trent in 1545. This period saw the rise of the Jesuits. Clavius studied in Coimbra under the mathematician, astronomer and navigational theorist Pedro Nunes. Clavius subsequently reformed the Jesuit mathematical syllabus at the Collegio Romano. He also headed the committee which authored the Gregorian Calendar Reform of 1582 and remained in correspondence with his teacher Nunes during this period.

Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci who trained in mathematics and astronomy under Clavius’ new syllabus were sent to India. In a 1581 letter, Ricci explicitly acknowledged that he was trying to understand the local methods of time-keeping (‘jyotisa’) from the Brahmins and Moors in the vicinity of Cochin.

Cochin was then the key centre for mathematics and astronomy since the Vijaynagar Empire had sheltered it from the continuous onslaughts of Islamic raiders from the north. Language was not a problem for the Jesuits since they had established a substantial presence in India. They had a college in Cochin and had even established printing presses in local languages like Malayalam and Tamil by the 1570’s.

In addition to the latitude problem (that was settled by the Gregorian Calendar Reform), there remained the question of loxodromes. These were the focus of efforts of navigational theorists like Nunes and Mercator.

The problem of calculating loxodromes is exactly the problem of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Loxodromes were calculated using sine tables. Nunes, Stevin, Clavius, etc. were greatly concerned with accurate sine values for this purpose, and each of them published lengthy sine tables. Madhava’s sine tables, using the series expansion of the sine function, were then the most accurate way to calculate sine values.

Madhava's sine series

sin x = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7!+......


The Europeans encountered difficulties in using these precise sine values for determining longitude, as in the Indo-Arabic navigational techniques or in the Laghu Bhâskarîya. This is because this technique of longitude determination also required an accurate estimate of the size of the earth. Columbus had underestimated the size of the earth to facilitate funding for his project of sailing to the West. His incorrect estimate was corrected in Europe only towards the end of the 17th century CE.

Even so, the Indo-Arabic navigational technique required calculations while the Europeans lacked the ability to calculate. This is because algorismus texts had only recently triumphed over abacus texts and the European tradition of mathematics was “spiritual” and “formal” rather than practical, as Clavius had acknowledged in the 16th century and as Swift (of ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ fame) had satirized in the 17th century. This led to the development of the chronometer, an appliance that could be mechanically used without any application of the mind.

The Idea of Planetary Mass in India

Many ancient cultures have contributed to the development of Astro Physics.

Some examples are

The Saros cycles of eclipses discovered by Egyptians
The classification of stars by the Greeks
Sunspot observations of the Chinese
The phenomenon of Retrogression discovered by Babylonians

In this context the Indian contribution to Astro Physics ( which includes Astronomy, Maths and Astrology ) is the the development of the ideas of planetary forces and differential equations to calculate the geocentric planetary longitudes, several centuries before the European Renaissance.

Natural Strength is one of the Sixfold Strengths, Shad Balas and goes by the name Naisargika Bala. It is directly proportional to the size of the celestial bodies and inversely proportional to the geocentric distance. ( Horasara ).

Naisargika Bala or Natural Strength is used to compare planetary physical forces. When two planets occupy the same, identical position in the Zodiac at a given instant of time, such a phenomenon goes by the name of planetary war or Graha Yuddha,happening when two planets are in close conjunction. The Karanaratna written by Devacharya explains that the planet with the larger diameter is the victor in this planetary war. This implies Naisargika Bala.

The Surya Siddhanta says " The dynamics or quantity of motion produced by the action of a fixed force to different planetary objects is inversely related to the quantity of matter in these objects"

This definition more or less equals the statement of Newton’s second law of motion

M = Fa
or
a = F/M

So it strongly suggests that the idea of planetary mass was known to the ancient Indian astronomers and mathematicians.

Differential Equations used in Siddhantas

Motional strength is one the sixfold strengths, known as Cheshta Bala. This motional strength is computed by the formula

Motional Strength = 0.33 ( Sheegrocha or Perigee - geocentric longitude of the planet ). This motional strength is known as Cheshta Bala.


Differential Calculus is the science of rates of the change. If y is the longitude of the planet and t is time, then we have the differential equation ,dy/dt.

During direct motion, we find that dy/dt > 0 and during retrogression dy/dt < 0. During backward motion of the planet ( retrogression) y decreases with time and during direct motion y increases with time. When there are turning points known as Vikalas or stationary points, we have dy/dt = 0 ( where planets like Mars will appear to be stationary for an observer on Earth ).

The quantity in bracket is the Sheegra Anomaly, the Anomaly of Conjuction, the angular distance of the planet from the Sun. This Anomaly or Cheshta Bala is maximum at the center of the Retrograde Loop. Cheshta Kendra is defined as the Arc of Retrogression and is the same as Sheegra Kendra, Kendra being an angle in Sanskrit. During Opposition, when the planet is 180 degrees from the Sun, Cheshta Bala is maximum and during Conjunction, when the planet is 0 degrees from the Sun, it is minimum

The Motional Strength is given in units of 60s, Shashtiamsas.

Direct motion ( Anuvakra ) 30
Stationary point ( Vikala ) 15
Very slow motion ( Mandatara ) 7.5
Slow motion ( Manda ) 15
Average speed ( Sama ) 30
Fast motion ( Chara ) 30
Very fast motion ( Sheegra Chara ) 45
Max orbital speed ( Vakra ) 60
(Centre of retrograde)

The Nine Oribtal Elements

Mean and true planetary longitudes in the Zodiac is computed by Nine Orbital Elements, in Indian Astronomy.


Mean longitude of Planet, Graha Madhyama , M
Daily Motion of the Mean Longitude, Madhyama Dina Gathi, Md
Aphelion, Mandoccha, Ap
Daily Motion of Aphelion, Mandoccha Dina Gathi, Apd
Ascending Node, Patha, N
Daily Motion of Ascending Node, Patha Dina Gathi, Nd
Heliocentric Distance, Manda Karna, radius vector, mndk
Maximum Latitude, L, Parama Vikshepa
Eccentricity, Chyuthi,e


In Western Astronomy, we have six orbital elements

Mean Anomaly, m
Argument of Perihelion, w
Eccentricity, e
Ascending Node, N
Inclination, i, inclinent of orbit
Semi Major Axis, a

With the Nine Orbital Elements, true geocentric longitude of the planet is computed, using multi step algorithms.

There is geometrical equivalence between both the Epicycle and the Eccentric Models.

The radius of the Epicycle, r = e, the distance of the Equant from the Observer.

Astronomical Units of Time Measurement

We find Yuga cylces mentioned not only in astronomical works, but also in mythological works in India.

Kali Yuga began on the midnight of 17th Feb 3102 BCE and the duration of this Kali Yuga is said to be 4.32 K solar years. Dwapara is 2*Kali Yuga years. Treta is 3*K Y and Krita Yuga is 4*K Y.


Krita Treta Dwaparascha Kalischaiva Chaturyugam
Divya Dwadasabhir varshai savadhanam niroopitham


Thus an Equinoctial Cycle, Mahayuga is equal to 4+3+2+1 = 10 KYs.

E C = 10 KYs.

A Greater Equinoctial Cycle ( Manvantara ) = 71 Equinoctial Cycles

There are cusps happening in between Manvantaras, each equal to a Krita Yuga in duration. A Krita is equal to 4 KYs or 2/5 of a Maha Yuga. Since there will 15 such cusps happening amongst the Fourteen Manvantaras, they are equal to 15*2/5 = 6 Mahayugas.

Hence 14*71+6 = 1000 Mahayugas = 4.32 Billion Years

Sahasra yuga paryantham
Aharyal brahmano vidu
Ratrim yugah sahasrantham
The Ahoratra vido janah ( The Holy Geetha ).

This is one Cosmological Cycle, called Brahma Kalpa.

Chaturyuga sahasram indra harina dinam uchyathe


From one second, it can be logarithmically shown, upto 10^22 seconds. This is what the above diagram shows. This diagram is by courtesy of Wikipedia.

From 10^0 it goes upto 10^22 seconds. One day of Brahma is 4.32 billion years and 100 years of Brahma therefore is 311.04 trillion years, which is shown logarithmically above.

One Asu is 4 seconds, one Vinadi is 24 seconds and one Nadi is 24 minutes. 60 such Nadis make up one day. This is the Sexagesimal division of a day into 60 Nadis ! In Astronomy, one degree is sixty minutes and one minute is sixty seconds. Hence sexagesimal division is justified ! 365.25 such days constitute a year and Hindu calculation goes upto 311.04 trillion years !

Astronomical Units of Time Measurement

We find Yuga cylces mentioned not only in astronomical works, but also in mythological works in India.

Kali Yuga began on the midnight of 17th Feb 3102 BCE and the duration of this Kali Yuga is said to be 4.32 K solar years. Dwapara is 2*Kali Yuga years. Treta is 3*K Y and Krita Yuga is 4*K Y.


Krita Treta Dwaparascha Kalischaiva Chaturyugam
Divya Dwadasabhir varshai savadhanam niroopitham


Thus an Equinoctial Cycle, Mahayuga is equal to 4+3+2+1 = 10 KYs.

E C = 10 KYs.

A Greater Equinoctial Cycle ( Manvantara ) = 71 Equinoctial Cycles

There are cusps happening in between Manvantaras, each equal to a Krita Yuga in duration. A Krita is equal to 4 KYs or 2/5 of a Maha Yuga. Since there will 15 such cusps happening amongst the Fourteen Manvantaras, they are equal to 15*2/5 = 6 Mahayugas.

Hence 14*71+6 = 1000 Mahayugas = 4.32 Billion Years

Sahasra yuga paryantham
Aharyal brahmano vidu
Ratrim yugah sahasrantham
The Ahoratra vido janah ( The Holy Geetha ).

This is one Cosmological Cycle, called Brahma Kalpa.

Chaturyuga sahasram indra harina dinam uchyathe


From one second, it can be logarithmically shown, upto 10^22 seconds. This is what the above diagram shows. This diagram is by courtesy of Wikipedia.

From 10^0 it goes upto 10^22 seconds. One day of Brahma is 4.32 billion years and 100 years of Brahma therefore is 311.04 trillion years, which is shown logarithmically above.

One Asu is 4 seconds, one Vinadi is 24 seconds and one Nadi is 24 minutes. 60 such Nadis make up one day. This is the Sexagesimal division of a day into 60 Nadis ! In Astronomy, one degree is sixty minutes and one minute is sixty seconds. Hence sexagesimal division is justified ! 365.25 such days constitute a year and Hindu calculation goes upto 311.04 trillion years !

India slump to their heaviest defeat

We had warned in our columns that India is facing the adverse 10th transit of Jupiter. Dhoni is under the 8th Jovian transit.

But that did not deter him to score 74 not out, but all his heroics were in vain, as India slid to an inglorious defeat.

The 10th adverse Transit of Jove refers to "loss of position and wandering about". This is true of the One day World Champions, who will get brickbats and not the laurel, when they return home.

Sending a second XI to the West Indies and a first XI to England, well, things wont work out that way. England was preparing hard and smashed India 3-0!

The Geometric Model of Paramesvara

The Indian astronomers were interested in the computation of eclipses, of geocentric longitudes, the risings and settings of planets,which had relevance to the day to day activities of people.

Did not Emerson say?

"Astronomy is excellent, it should come down and give life its full value, and not rest amidst globes and spheres ".

They were not bothered about proposing Models of the Universe and gaining publicity. But then they did discuss the geometrical model, the rationale of their computations.

The above diagram explains the Geometric Model of Parameswara, another Kerala astronomer. Paramesvara and Nilakanta modified the Aryabhatan Model.

By Sheegroccha, he meant the longitude of the Sun." Sheegrocham Sarvesham Ravir bhavathi ", he says is his book Bhatadeepika . For the interior planets, the longitude of the Sheegra correction is to be deducted from the Sun's longitude, Ravi Sphuta to get the Anomaly of Conjunction.

The Manda Prathimandala is the mean angular motion of the Planet, from which the trignometric corrections are given to get the true, geocentric longitude.

The Geometric Model of Paramesvara

The Indian astronomers were interested in the computation of eclipses, of geocentric longitudes, the risings and settings of planets,which had relevance to the day to day activities of people.

Did not Emerson say?

"Astronomy is excellent, it should come down and give life its full value, and not rest amidst globes and spheres ".

They were not bothered about proposing Models of the Universe and gaining publicity. But then they did discuss the geometrical model, the rationale of their computations.

The above diagram explains the Geometric Model of Parameswara, another Kerala astronomer. Paramesvara and Nilakanta modified the Aryabhatan Model.

By Sheegroccha, he meant the longitude of the Sun." Sheegrocham Sarvesham Ravir bhavathi ", he says is his book Bhatadeepika . For the interior planets, the longitude of the Sheegra correction is to be deducted from the Sun's longitude, Ravi Sphuta to get the Anomaly of Conjunction.

The Manda Prathimandala is the mean angular motion of the Planet, from which the trignometric corrections are given to get the true, geocentric longitude.

Uphill task for India

India is dithering, with England scoring 456/3. Cook is undefeated with 182. Stauss was out for 87 and KP for 63. Eoin Morgan scored 44.

Indian bowlers were made to look ordinary before the might of English batting. India is at a big psychological disadvantage, having lost both Tests.

India's rating is bound to suffer because of such lack lustre performances.

As we have outlined in our columns before, adverse Jupiterian transits have affected both India and Dhoni. We hope the Indian team will come out of the impasse with flying colors.

Vikshepa Koti, the cosine of celestial latitude

Jyeshtadeva was a Kerala astronomer who helped in the calculation of longitudes, when there is latitudinal deflection. In his Yukti Bhasa, he calculates correctly the cos l, the cosine of latitude, which is important in the Reduction to the Ecliptic.

There is a separate section in the Yukti Bhasa, which deals with the effects of the inclination of a planet's orbit on its latitude. He describes how to find the true longitude of a planet, Sheegra Sphutam, when there is latitudinal deflection.


"Now calculate the Vikshepa Koti, cos l, by subtracting the square of the Vikshepa from the square of the Manda Karna Vyasardha and calculating the root of the difference."

In the above diagram,

N is the Ascending Node
P is the planet on the Manda Karna Vritta, inclined to the Ecliptic


Vikshepa Koti = OM = SQRT( OP^2 - PM^2 )

Taking this Vikshepa Koti and assuming it to be the Manda Karna, sheegra sphuta, the true longitude, has to be calculated as before.

Vikshepa Koti, the cosine of celestial latitude

Jyeshtadeva was a Kerala astronomer who helped in the calculation of longitudes, when there is latitudinal deflection. In his Yukti Bhasa, he calculates correctly the cos l, the cosine of latitude, which is important in the Reduction to the Ecliptic.

There is a separate section in the Yukti Bhasa, which deals with the effects of the inclination of a planet's orbit on its latitude. He describes how to find the true longitude of a planet, Sheegra Sphutam, when there is latitudinal deflection.


"Now calculate the Vikshepa Koti, cos l, by subtracting the square of the Vikshepa from the square of the Manda Karna Vyasardha and calculating the root of the difference."

In the above diagram,

N is the Ascending Node
P is the planet on the Manda Karna Vritta, inclined to the Ecliptic


Vikshepa Koti = OM = ( OP^2 - PM^2 ) ^1/2

Taking this Vikshepa Koti and assuming it to be the Manda Karna, sheegra sphuta, the true longitude, has to be calculated as before.

Dhoni&amp;#39;s 77 redeems not India !

Dhoni scored a gutsy 77, but that could not save India, who dithered to 224 all out.

It was a pathetic display of batsmanship, as Sehwag fell for nought and Sachin for one. P Kumar gave a good stand to Dhoni, after the visitors were 7/111.

Strauss scored a brilliant 50 and is still unconquered, with England 84 for no wicket.

Only Gambhir (38) and Laxman (30) could stay at the wicket. The rest was a procession.

Broad and Bresnan took 4 wickets each and swung India out cheap.

P Kumar's 26 saved India, as he gave a good stand to the Indian skipper. Will England do a 4-0 whitewash ?

Dhoni&#39;s 77 redeems not India !

Dhoni scored a gutsy 77, but that could not save India, who dithered to 224 all out.

It was a pathetic display of batsmanship, as Sehwag fell for nought and Sachin for one. P Kumar gave a good stand to Dhoni, after the visitors were 7/111.

Strauss scored a brilliant 50 and is still unconquered, with England 84 for no wicket.

Only Gambhir (38) and Laxman (30) could stay at the wicket. The rest was a procession.

Broad and Bresnan took 4 wickets each and swung India out cheap.

P Kumar's 26 saved India, as he gave a good stand to the Indian skipper. Will England do a 4-0 whitewash ?

Vikshepa, the Celestial Latitude

l, Vikshepa, is the Celestial Latitude, the latitude of the planet, the angular distance of the planet from the Ecliptic.

i is the inclination, inclinent of Orbit.


Sin l = Sin i Sin( Heliocentric Long - Long of Node ).

Celestial Latitude is calculated from this equation.

The longitude of the Ascending Node, pata, is minussed from the heliocentric longitude and this angle is called Vipata Kendra.

Vikshepa, the Celestial Latitude

l, Vikshepa, is the Celestial Latitude, the latitude of the planet, the angular distance of the planet from the Ecliptic.

i is the inclination, inclinent of Orbit.


Sin l = Sin i Sin ( Heliocentric Long - Long of Node ).

Celestial Latitude is calculated from this equation.

The longitude of the Ascending Node, pata, is minussed from the heliocentric longitude and this angle is called Vipata Kendra.

Sidereal Periods in the Geocentric Model

In the last post we said that Angle AES is Sheegroccha, which is the longitude of the Sun. ( Sheegrocham Sarvesham Ravir Bhavathi ). The Angle AEK is the Heliocentric longitude of the planet.

Sidereal Periods of superior Planets in the Geocentric = Sidereal periods in the Heliocentric.

Sidereal Periods of Mercury and Venus = Mean Sun in the Geocentric

In the Planetary Model of Aryabhata, we find the equation

Heliocentric Longitude - Longitude of Sun = The Anomaly of Conjunction ( Sheegra Kendra ).

As Astronomy is Universal, we are indebted to these savants who made astro calculation possible. Even the word " genius " is an understatement of their brilliant IQ !


Development of the Planetary Models in Astronomy

Hipparchus 150 BCE
Claudious Ptolemy 150 ACE
Aryabhata 499 ACE
Varaha 550 ACE
Brahmagupta 628 ACE
Bhaskara I 630 ACE
Al Gorismi 850 ACE
Munjala 930 ACE
Bhaskara II 1150 ACE
Madhava 1380 ACE
Ibn al Shatir 1350 ACE
Paramesvara 1430 ACE
Nilakanta 1500 ACE
Copernicus 1543 ACE
Tycho Brahe 1587 ACE
Kepler 1609 ACE
Laplace 1700 ACE
Urbain Le Verrier 1850 ACE
Simon Newcomb 1900 ACE
E W Brown 1920 ACE

Development of Astronomy

In the last post we said that Angle AES is Sheegroccha, which is the longitude of the Sun. ( Sheegrocham Sarvesham Ravir Bhavathi ). The Angle AEK is the Heliocentric longitude of the planet.

Sidereal Periods of superior Planets in the Geocentric = Sidereal periods in the Heliocentric.

Sidereal Periods of Mercury and Venus = Mean Sun in the Geocentric

In the Planetary Model of Aryabhata, we find the equation

Heliocentric Longitude - Longitude of Sun = The Anomaly of Conjunction ( Sheegra Kendra ).

As Astronomy is Universal, we are indebted to these savants who made astro calculation possible. Even the word " genius " is an understatement of their brilliant IQ !


Development of the Planetary Models in Astronomy

Hipparchus 150 BCE
Claudious Ptolemy 150 ACE
Aryabhata 499 ACE
Varaha 550 ACE
Brahmagupta 628 ACE
Bhaskara I 630 ACE
Al Gorismi 850 ACE
Munjala 930 ACE
Bhaskara II 1150 ACE
Madhava 1380 ACE
Ibn al Shatir 1350 ACE
Paramesvara 1430 ACE
Nilakanta 1500 ACE
Copernicus 1543 ACE
Tycho Brahe 1587 ACE
Kepler 1609 ACE
Laplace 1700 ACE
Urbain Le Verrier 1850 ACE
Simon Newcomb 1900 ACE
E W Brown 1920 ACE

Sheeghra Samskara

In the above diagram,


A = Starting Point, 0 degree Aries
P = Planet
S = Sun
E = Earth

Angle AEK = Manda Sphuta, heliocentric longitude, after manda samskara
Angle AES = Sheegroccha, mean Sun, mean longitude of Sol
Angle AEP = True geocentric longitude of planet
Angle KEP = The Sheegra Correction or sheegra phalam

The Anomaly of Conjunction = Sheegra Kendra = Angle AES - Angle AEK

x = Angle AES - Angle AEK

Sin ( x ) =

r sin (x)
_______________________
((R + r cos x)^2 + rsin x^2 ))^1/2

which is the Sheegra correction formula given by the Indian astronomers to calculate the geocentric position of the planet.

Reduction to the Geocentric for superior planets in the Eccentric Model

In the above diagram,


A = Starting Point, 0 degree Aries
P = Planet
S = Sun
E = Earth

Angle AEK = Manda Sphuta, heliocentric longitude, after manda samskara
Angle AES = Sheegroccha, mean Sun, mean longitude of Sol
Angle AEP = True geocentric longitude of planet
Angle KEP = The Sheegra Correction or sheegra phalam

The Anomaly of Conjunction = Sheegra Kendra = Angle AES - Angle AEK

x = Angle AES - Angle AEK

Sin ( x ) =

r sin (x)
_______________________
((R + r cos x)^2 + rsin x^2 ))^1/2

which is the Sheegra correction formula given by the Indian astronomers to calculate the geocentric position of the planet.

Aslesha Njattuvela brings rains !

It was Monsoon Tourism, as Aslesha Njattuvela was on. It was raining heavily, cats and dogs in Kerala. I got the rains when I reached Kochi. I had some work at the Passport Office and I finished the work at Noon. Then I went on a tour of the famous Goshree Islands.

I went by boat yesterday to the beautiful Bolgatty Island. A two minutes walk saw me entering the lovely Bolgatty Palace, a resort by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation.





I walked to the Bolgatty Bus Stand and took a bus to Vallarpadam International Container Terminal. Now everything is in place and one ship, OEL Dubai, was unloading. The progress of the ICTT is slow, but steady.





The Bolgatty Palace is beautiful and well situated in the Mulavukad Island. This island is connected to Vallarpadam by a bridge. Vallarpadam is in turn connected to Vypin by a bridge. In fact these bridges are known as Goshree Bridges, as these beateous islands are known as Goshree Islands. In Vypin, one can see the GAIL LNG terminals, which adorn Puthuvypin.




A new bridge, parallel to the existing Vallarpadam bridge, is being built to ease the traffic. I saw a barge jetty at Bolgatty and a barge carrying containers there.




Kochi is a cauldron of world cultures. A versatile land where visitors from abroad, right from Arabs and Phoenicians to the Chinese, Italians, Portugese, Dutch and British have left indelible marks. A great Port, universally known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea. The newly renovated Bolgatty Palace has 4 palace suits, 6 waterfront cottages, 16 well maintained rooms and one can enjoy four star faciliites and a range of leisure options.





Said a honeymooner, Asmita, Calcullat about Bolgatty " We went to Kerala for our honeymoon and Kochi was our first stop. We reached the resort at around 3:30pm after a long flight and were famished. Since we reached post lunch timings none of the restaurants were open, however the room service was very prompt and we had an amazing keralite food. The rooms are large, and built in a princely way. The property is equipped with all the modern facilities and the stay was really comfortable.
We enjoyed the Kerala body message in the resort . The location is also great. Overall its a great place to stay ".

The Bolgatty Palace was built in 1744 by the Dutch and is a short boat ride away from the Ernakulam Mainland. This is one of the oldest Dutch Palaces outside Holland the only Palace Hotel of its kind in Kerala. Now she has a Palace block and a resort block, called Bolgatty Island Resort. Amenities here comprise Swimming Pool, 9 hole Golf Course and is a destination of choice for select Indian corporates for their conference. It is a favourite destination for Indian elite and overseas tourists. The Kochi Airport is just 32 kms away and the rail and bus terminals just 2 km away.

Kochi International Marina is a KTDC venture located on the eastern coast of Bolgatty Island in the Bolgatty Palace Heritage Hotel. It is the first full fledged marina of international standards in Bharat. It provides berthing facilities to 37 yachts and also offers services like electricity, water and fuel for boats. It is close to the international sea route at the South West Coast of peninsular India , with minimum tidal variations and favorable conditions.






The Bolgatty Event Center overlooks the backwaters of Cochin Seaport and is an exotic venue for conducting Conferences, Exhitions, Wedding Receptions, Conventions and theme dinners. Imbued with resplendent greenery, the Arabian Sea and the ICTT at Vallarpadam gives an easy access to the Center.

Aslesha Njattuvela brings rains !

It was Monsoon Tourism, as Aslesha Njattuvela was on. It was raining heavily, cats and dogs in Kerala. I got the rains when I reached Kochi. I had some work at the Passport Office and I finished the work at Noon. Then I went on a tour of the famous Goshree Islands.

I went by boat yesterday to the beautiful Bolgatty Island. A two minutes walk saw me entering the lovely Bolgatty Palace, a resort by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation.





I walked to the Bolgatty Bus Stand and took a bus to Vallarpadam International Container Terminal. Now everything is in place and one ship, OEL Dubai, was unloading. The progress of the ICTT is slow, but steady.





The Bolgatty Palace is beautiful and well situated in the Mulavukad Island. This island is connected to Vallarpadam by a bridge. Vallarpadam is in turn connected to Vypin by a bridge. In fact these bridges are known as Goshree Bridges, as these beateous islands are known as Goshree Islands. In Vypin, one can see the GAIL LNG terminals, which adorn Puthuvypin.




A new bridge, parallel to the existing Vallarpadam bridge, is being built to ease the traffic. I saw a barge jetty at Bolgatty and a barge carrying containers there.




Kochi is a cauldron of world cultures. A versatile land where visitors from abroad, right from Arabs and Phoenicians to the Chinese, Italians, Portugese, Dutch and British have left indelible marks. A great Port, universally known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea. The newly renovated Bolgatty Palace has 4 palace suits, 6 waterfront cottages, 16 well maintained rooms and one can enjoy four star faciliites and a range of leisure options.





Said a honeymooner, Asmita, Calcullat about Bolgatty " We went to Kerala for our honeymoon and Kochi was our first stop. We reached the resort at around 3:30pm after a long flight and were famished. Since we reached post lunch timings none of the restaurants were open, however the room service was very prompt and we had an amazing keralite food. The rooms are large, and built in a princely way. The property is equipped with all the modern facilities and the stay was really comfortable.
We enjoyed the Kerala body message in the resort . The location is also great. Overall its a great place to stay ".

The Bolgatty Palace was built in 1744 by the Dutch and is a short boat ride away from the Ernakulam Mainland. This is one of the oldest Dutch Palaces outside Holland the only Palace Hotel of its kind in Kerala. Now she has a Palace block and a resort block, called Bolgatty Island Resort. Amenities here comprise Swimming Pool, 9 hole Golf Course and is a destination of choice for select Indian corporates for their conference. It is a favourite destination for Indian elite and overseas tourists. The Kochi Airport is just 32 kms away and the rail and bus terminals just 2 km away.

Kochi International Marina is a KTDC venture located on the eastern coast of Bolgatty Island in the Bolgatty Palace Heritage Hotel. It is the first full fledged marina of international standards in Bharat. It provides berthing facilities to 37 yachts and also offers services like electricity, water and fuel for boats. It is close to the international sea route at the South West Coast of peninsular India , with minimum tidal variations and favorable conditions.






The Bolgatty Event Center overlooks the backwaters of Cochin Seaport and is an exotic venue for conducting Conferences, Exhitions, Wedding Receptions, Conventions and theme dinners. Imbued with resplendent greenery, the Arabian Sea and the ICTT at Vallarpadam gives an easy access to the Center.

My Trip to Bolgatty

It was Monsoon Tourism, as Aslesha Njattuvela was on. It was raining heavily, cats and dogs in Kerala. I got the rains when I reached Kochi. I had some work at the Passport Office and I finished the work at Noon. Then I went on a tour of the famous Goshree Islands.

I went by boat yesterday to the beautiful Bolgatty Island. A two minutes walk saw me entering the lovely Bolgatty Palace, a resort by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation.





I walked to the Bolgatty Bus Stand and took a bus to Vallarpadam International Container Terminal. Now everything is in place and one ship, OEL Dubai, was unloading. The progress of the ICTT is slow, but steady.





The Bolgatty Palace is beautiful and well situated in the Mulavukad Island. This island is connected to Vallarpadam by a bridge. Vallarpadam is in turn connected to Vypin by a bridge. In fact these bridges are known as Goshree Bridges, as these beateous islands are known as Goshree Islands. In Vypin, one can see the GAIL LNG terminals, which adorn Puthuvypin.




A new bridge, parallel to the existing Vallarpadam bridge, is being built to ease the traffic. I saw a barge jetty at Bolgatty and a barge carrying containers there.




Kochi is a cauldron of world cultures. A versatile land where visitors from abroad, right from Arabs and Phoenicians to the Chinese, Italians, Portugese, Dutch and British have left indelible marks. A great Port, universally known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea. The newly renovated Bolgatty Palace has 4 palace suits, 6 waterfront cottages, 16 well maintained rooms and one can enjoy four star faciliites and a range of leisure options.





Said a honeymooner, Asmita, Calcullat about Bolgatty " We went to Kerala for our honeymoon and Kochi was our first stop. We reached the resort at around 3:30pm after a long flight and were famished. Since we reached post lunch timings none of the restaurants were open, however the room service was very prompt and we had an amazing keralite food. The rooms are large, and built in a princely way. The property is equipped with all the modern facilities and the stay was really comfortable.
We enjoyed the Kerala body message in the resort . The location is also great. Overall its a great place to stay ".

The Bolgatty Palace was built in 1744 by the Dutch and is a short boat ride away from the Ernakulam Mainland. This is one of the oldest Dutch Palaces outside Holland the only Palace Hotel of its kind in Kerala. Now she has a Palace block and a resort block, called Bolgatty Island Resort. Amenities here comprise Swimming Pool, 9 hole Golf Course and is a destination of choice for select Indian corporates for their conference. It is a favourite destination for Indian elite and overseas tourists. The Kochi Airport is just 32 kms away and the rail and bus terminals just 2 km away.

Kochi International Marina is a KTDC venture located on the eastern coast of Bolgatty Island in the Bolgatty Palace Heritage Hotel. It is the first full fledged marina of international standards in Bharat. It provides berthing facilities to 37 yachts and also offers services like electricity, water and fuel for boats. It is close to the international sea route at the South West Coast of peninsular India , with minimum tidal variations and favorable conditions.






The Bolgatty Event Center overlooks the backwaters of Cochin Seaport and is an exotic venue for conducting Conferences, Exhitions, Wedding Receptions, Conventions and theme dinners. Imbued with resplendent greenery, the Arabian Sea and the ICTT at Vallarpadam gives an easy access to the Center.